Keywords
Handwriting difficulties
Primary school students
Chinese handwriting performance
Early identification
Submitted : 2026-05-31
Accepted : 2026-06-15
Published : 2026-06-30
Abstract
Background: Handwriting is critically important for school-age children in the current education system. Poor handwriting performance during primary school can negatively affect students’ academic achievement and self-confidence. Objectives: To summarize the average Chinese handwriting performance of local primary school students in Macao using a Smart Handwriting Analysis Platform, identify students at the critical stage of Chinese handwriting difficulties, and understand the concerns of parents and teachers regarding students’ Chinese handwriting. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted from 2019 to 2021. The Smart Handwriting Analysis and Recognition Platform (SHARP) was used to collect and analyze Chinese handwriting performance among 789 typically developing students (Grades 1–6) and 79 students with Special Educational Needs (SEN) in Macao. One-way ANOVA was used to examine differences in Chinese handwriting indicators across grades, and independent-samples t-tests were used to compare performance between typically developing students and SEN students. Parents of participating students completed the Handwriting Ability Checklist (HAC), and homeroom teachers or Chinese language teachers recorded students with handwriting difficulties through additional annotations. Results: Chinese handwriting ability among Macao primary school students showed a typical developmental trend. Significant differences were found between typically developing students and SEN students in character boundary exceeding and writing errors. Approximately 9–14% of typically developing students performed at the critical level across SHARP indicators. School teachers paid greater attention to students’ writing accuracy. Combining the parent-completed HAC with SHARP results enabled more effective identification of students with Chinese handwriting difficulties. Conclusion: The SHARP can assist teachers and occupational therapists in the early identification of students with Chinese handwriting difficulties. By collecting Chinese handwriting performance data from local typically developing and SEN students in Grades 1–6, local norms for Chinese handwriting proficiency among Macao primary school students have been established.
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